Death of Suleiman
by
Zeljko Zidaric, October 2017
Opening
thoughts
Of all the events at the siege of Siget the
most confusing is the death of sultan Suleiman.
There are many accounts on when he died and how (from what). The reason for the speculation is that
Suleiman's death was kept a secret and then more than likely fictionalized by
the grand vizier Sokolovic for political purposes. The two main chroniclers,
Feridun Ahmed-bey[1]
and Mustafa Selaniki[2],
were both subordinates of the grand vizier, dependent on him for their careers
and complicit in the conspiracy to cover up the death of the sultan and then create
an official history[3]
that was favorable to Sokolovic's agenda.
I understand the various plausible
possibilities as identified in the matrix below. Following the tradition of speculation I will
develop the most dramatic and interesting of the scenarios - the death of an
enraged old man. Dying of a stroke on
September 4 aligns with all the criteria of Suleiman's medical condition, his
temperament and what was happening in the camp (as best I know it).
Death
of an angry old man[4]
On the morning of September 4th Suleiman woke.
He did not sleep well the previous night and had difficulty getting out
of bed. His health was getting worse and
he was weak in body. Lying in bed
Suleiman heard the cannons firing and could smell the smoke of battle and he
was weak in spirit. Then he heard the
Ottoman trumpet signaling a retreat. In
Suleiman that trumpet triggered a rage. He
got out of bed and in the distance he could see[5]
the Janissaries running from Siget. Great anguish and anger were caused, during
the last few days, by the many reports he received of his Janissaries and sipahis
being thrown from the top of the walls, crushed by rocks, shot by cannons and
muskets, burned by oil and killed in numerous other ways. Now he sees another retreat.
His dream was Vienna but his mighty army
was stopped, for a month now, here at this small fort in this unimportant part
of Hungary and every day of assaults and retreats moved his victory further
away. His army failing. His offers to Zrinski of wealth and power in return for
surrender failed. He, Suleiman, the most
powerful man in the world, was rebuffed by an insignificant man and that was a
great insult. He thought of the loss of
Malta the previous year and feared that Siget would be another similar
embarrassing loss. Suleiman remembered a
youth full of victories and did not want to be remembered as a weak old man
failing in his final campaign.
While he had not heard any reports of
Maximilian's army moving he knew that one day it would and when it came to
Siget the siege would be over. He sat at his desk, impatient, irritable, and wrote
a note asking Sokolovic to come to his tent.
In the note he wrote, “This fire
does not yet cease to burn, and the great drum of conquest does not yet make
itself heard!"[6]
A messenger delivered the note to
Sokolovic.
After lunch Sokolovic came to Suleiman's
tent and gave a report on the day's progress.
Suleiman, upset with the excessive duration and the great losses of the
siege, said to his Grand Vizier;
“…zira bu kale benim yüreğimi yakmıştır;
dilerim Hakdan ateşlere yana”
dilerim Hakdan ateşlere yana”
"... already this castle burns my heart;
I wish Allah would punish this accursed place."
I wish Allah would punish this accursed place."
Sokolovic told Suleiman that everything is
progressing according to plan. He
acknowledged that his forces had suffered a retreat (many retreats) but that
the retreats are not important because in every attack the soldiers of Allah
kill a few more infidels. In this war of
attrition we are winning. The infidels are few and feel every loss with great
pain but there are so many of the faithful that even the loss of a hundred
every day is not painful. The walls are slowly crumbling and a victory can be
anticipated in a week or so.
Suleiman was not interested in a slow
victory by attrition. Suleiman wanted a
heroic charge, a glorious victory of which people will speak for ages. He was so angry and could not control
himself. He yelled insults about
incompetence and cowardice at Sokolovic like he had never yelled before. He threatened Sokolovic that if Siget was not
soon in his hands that he would have Sokolovic's head.
Sokolovic attempted to explain the
situation to Suleiman but Suleiman got could not control his rage and threw a
small dagger at Sokolovic. The dagger
missed as Sokolovic quickly moved aside.
Sokolovic had a flashback to the way Arslan-pasha was strangled and to
the order given to kill the quartermaster, whose life Sokolovic saved. He knew that in this rage Suleiman had lost
his mind but he also knew that it was easy for Suleiman to order the execution
of agas, viziers and even sons.
Sokolovic knew that he was not safe. He had to placate Suleiman somehow.
Suleiman's
temperament
It is known that
Suleiman was temperamental, easy to enrage, making rash decisions. He wanted to end his life with a grand
victory but was stopped. It is easy to
understand why he would be in a rage.
Suleiman was still raging about cowardice
and failure and then as he was taking a few steps towards Sokolovic he stopped.
A strange look of pain contorted his face and he dropped to the ground. He raised his arm and made noises asking
Sokolovic to help him. Sokolovic came to
him and looked down but did nothing.
Imagine - You
are Sokolovic.
You see Suleiman
on the ground. You know that he is weak
and ill. This looks like an apoplectic
fit (apoplexy) from which he will probably die shortly. What do you say and do to Suleiman?
Suleiman's physician, who was close by,
heard the angry shouts and came into the tent just after Suleiman had
collapsed, making noises and then his arm collapsing. The doctor saw Sokolovic
standing there, doing nothing, and rushed to Suleiman. As the last breaths of
life were exhaled from between Suleiman's lips and as his eyes went dark he
could do nothing.
Imagine - You
are Sokolovic.
What do you do to the sultan's physician after what he just witnessed?
What do you do to the sultan's physician after what he just witnessed?
It is said that
Sokolovic had the physician killed[7]
in order to keep the death of Suleiman a secret. Did it really happen? Who knows?
Maybe the idea of killing the physician is symbolism for how far
Sokolovic was willing to go to keep secret the death od Suleiman.
Another possibility
Suleiman’s patience was beginning to be
exhausted. He summoned his main pashas
and when they stood in front of him he accused them, in the bitterest terms, of
incompetence and cowardice. He then
threaten that if they failed to take the citadel in the next assault he would
have their heads cut off and he would personally march into the assault over
their dead bodies. That night, after
midnight, he was seized by an attack of apoplexy and died
Suleiman came to take Siget and kill
Nikola Zrinski
but ultimately it was Zrínski’s resistance that killed Suleiman.
but ultimately it was Zrínski’s resistance that killed Suleiman.
… but Zrinski did not learn this before he
died.
An
empire comes to a halt
What you need to know first.
Grand vizier Sokolovic had Ottoman laws and
customs which dictated what could and should be done and within which he had to
operate. In the Ottoman Empire the
sultan was the center of everything, he was the shadow of Allah on Earth and he
created the order of the world. The
sultan, it is said, is like the keystone in an arch without which the arch
collapses. The centralized empire moved on his orders. He was the only one that could command the Janissaries
and only he could conclude international peace treaties. The sultan appointed the sanjak-beys, the
beyler-beys, the pashas, the agas, the viziers, and they all took orders from
him. When the sultan died the servants of the Porte had no master and all
public action, including war, ceased because without the sultan no order was
possible.
The death of the sultan means that the
siege is over until a new sultan takes command and gives new orders to go to
war. It could be a month before Selim is
enthroned as the new sultan and gives new orders. By that time, in early
October, it would be too late to continue the siege and all this time, money
and effort would be for nothing.
Sokolovic knew that the new sultan might also want new viziers. If Sokolovic wanted to have any chance of
maintaining his position as grand vizier, and his head, he had to return to
Constantinople with a victory for Selim[8].
During the last two weeks morale problems
were already developing in the camp due to the failed assaults, many casualties,
many wounded, dysentery epidemic hunger and deprivation. Sokolovic knew that public knowledge of the
death of Suleiman could cause panic, serious discipline problems and
potentially resulting in the end of the siege. Everything depended on what the Janissaries
would do. The best-case scenario for
when the Janissaries lose their beloved master is that they just stop fighting
because they only fight for the sultan. The worst-case scenario, due to the stress of
the siege, the Janissaries could revolt and mutiny creating massive chaos. The
empire itself was at stake and neither scenario was desirable.
The grand vizier had only one option; take
control and maintain the reality that Suleiman was alive and giving orders
until Selim II could be enthroned as the new sultan could be enthroned. Sokolovic
hijacked the empire.
Keeping
Suleiman alive
Quickly, with the help of Suleiman's
physician, Sokolovic put the dead into his bed as if he was sleeping and swore
the doctor to secrecy, under penalty of death.
Everyone must know that Suleiman was ill and tired, resting and
recovering and nothing else. Next Sokolovic called off the assaults by the
soldiers on the fortress and gave the army time to rest and recover for the
rest of that day. He had greater issues to deal with and could not be
interrupted by generals and reports about the assaults. While the artillery kept firing on the walls
and bastions of the Outer Citadel the workers collected and buried the bodies
of the fallen soldiers.
The grand vizier then called the top
viziers of the general staff[9]
and his trusted scribe and chronicler to come to the sultan's tent for an
emergency meeting. Sokolovic explained to his confidants[10]
what happened and what must happen next.
All the viziers knew that, for the sake of the empire, the death of
Suleiman must be kept a secret and they all swore to keep the secret under
penalty of death. All agreed to
continue the siege as if Suleiman was still alive.
The daily routine of life in and around
Suleiman's tent continued as if Suleiman was still alive, as it had before, so
that no suspicions would arise.
·
Food and drink were brought to
Suleiman's tent
·
The band played music in front
of the tent.
·
Reports were accepted and
presented by the grand vizier to the sultan.
·
Lists for promotions were drawn
up and distributed.
·
Awards and money were given to
soldiers who were courageous in battle.
·
Orders were written in the
sultan's name and then Sokolovic, as usual, distributed them.
The author of the orders was Jafer-aga[11],
the chief squire, along with the personal secretary Feridum-bey, was sworn to
state secrecy under penalty of death. The
grand vizier entrusted him with writing the daily communications. Both Jafer-aga and Feridum-bey served
Sokolovic faithfully and later, during the reign of Selim II[12],
Jafer-aga became Sokolovic's son-in-law and Janissary-aga while Feridum-bey
became the reis-effendi (master secretary).
A most important message was written to
prince Selim to inform him of his father's death and recommendations for what
had to happen next. It was vital that
Selim quickly go to Constantinople, take possession of the throne, become the
sultan and then come to Hungary to take control of the army. The message was sent by one of Sokolovic's
most trusted messengers and taken to Selim in Magnesia[13],
modern day Manisa, on the Aegean side of Turkey. A trip of 1,450 km.
On September
5, early in the morning, orders came from Suleiman to the army. The army
was also told that the sultan was unhappy with their slow progress. Grand vizier
Sokolovic read to them the letter Suleiman wrote to him, “Has not this chimney
finished burning yet? When will the trumpet of victory sound?” He told the soldiers to go and fight like they
had never fought before and make the sultan proud.
Earlier in the morning[14]
Sokolovic had the dead sultan dressed in his imperial robes, with his large
diamond studded turban on his head and golden war hammer in his hand. A black veil covered his face. The dead sultan was then placed on his throne
and positioned by the tent window. As the soldiers marched past the
sultan's tent the curtains were pulled back and the soldiers saw their sultan
sitting behind the thin fabric screen of the window, waving to them.
It is possible
that when Suleiman was set up on his chair Kuzu Ali-aga, one of the confidants, sat behind the body
and moved Suleiman's arms when the grand vizier opened the curtains. In this way the dead sultan greeted with
raised hands the soldiers marching past.
It is also possible
that Imam Hasan-aga, who resembled Suleiman, may have dressed in the sultan’s
clothes and sitting behind the veil pretended to be the sultan and waved to
soldiers going to battle.
The
soldiers were happy to know that their sultan had seen them.
When questions were asked about Suleiman
not being present at events Sokolovic told everyone that Suleiman was tired or
suffering from the pain of gout and everyone believed it because they had seen
him tired quite often. Sokolovic also
told people that Suleiman was suffering from dysentery and that was
understandable and accepted because many, if not most, people in the camp were
suffering or had suffered from the bloody flux.
To know what was being said in the camp
Sokolovic sent spies into the camp to report to him the situation of the
soldiers and also to spread (dis)information about Suleiman's health and
well-being.
Chronicler
Mustafa Selaniki tells a story that Suleiman learned of a geomancer[15]
who had been asked by some worried soldiers about the health of Suleiman, their
commander-in-chief, because rumors were spreading that he was near death. The geomancer threw the lots and said,"
It is virtually impossible that the sick man will recover his
health." He also added, "The
tent is held up by a broken pillar, to half its height, and a new pillar must
be brought and positioned so that the tent is firmly supported." In Anatolian folklore the symbolism of the
broken pillar and collapsed tent announced death. Sokolovic had the seer found and executed.
Success
The secret was kept so successfully that the
soldiers did not find out about of Suleiman's death and they kept following
orders. An incredible and unprecedented
feat for the grand vizier. For more than seven weeks the great Ottoman army of
150,000 soldiers fought, and took towns and cities, in the name of the dead
man.
Embalming
Suleiman
Just in case you were wondering
In the hot days of September forced
Sokolovic to break with Muslim tradition and bury the dead body as soon as
possible (typically 24 hours).
Suleiman's body began to decompose quickly and Sokolovic had to perform
a quick embalming of Suleiman's body to prevent the odors of rotting flesh.
To do an embalming Sokolovic would first
need to cut open the body and remove the organs and heart since it is the
innards that begin to decay (rot) first and fastest. Sokolovic placed the organs and heart in a
gold container and buried them under the sultan's tent in the area that is
today known as Turbek[16]
Hill. He did this at night while the
camp slept.
The body was salted and covered in fragrant
oils. Some time within the next few
days, maybe after the conquest of Siget, the body was placed in a box and buried
temporarily until the army began the march back to Constantinople.
Extra
After Suleiman’s death
some great troubles arose that were difficult to explain.
First a fierce
storm with powerful winds caused great damage in the camp, overturning the sultan’s
tents and scattering them all over. The
winds blew to the Grand Vizier Mehmed-pasha Sokolovic’s tent blowing it
away. All the straw, hay and trash the
wind found were blown all over the camp.
Second, at the
same time something strange happened on the lower Danube, near Tolna. The river became so turbulent that it mixed
up with mud and sand becoming firty and for three days it did not clear. Neither the Ottomans nor locals from Tolna
were ablr to use the water for washing or drinking.
[1] Probably of devsirme origins, became an influential katib,
scribe or secretary, in the employ of Grand Vizier Sokolovic.
[2] Also known as Selanıkî Mustafa Efendi, was an Ottoman scholar and
chronicler. His book Tarih-i Selâniki describes the Ottoman Empire of
1563–1599. Related to Sokolovic.
[3] Important Ottoman chronicler Ibrahim Peçevi (1572–1650) was also
connected to Sokolovic as his mother was from the Sokolović family.
[4] Both Ferenc Crnko, who was in the fortress, and Ferenc Forgach, who was
at the imperial camp in Gyor, both say that Suleiman died on September 4. I will go with that date.
[6] Or maybe "Has that smoke not yet cleared, does the horn of victory
not yet play?”
or maybe "Does the smoke not yet disperse, does not yet the horn of conquest sound?" or maybe “This chimney, then, does not yet cease to burn, and the great drum of conquest does not yet make itself heard!”
or maybe "Does the smoke not yet disperse, does not yet the horn of conquest sound?" or maybe “This chimney, then, does not yet cease to burn, and the great drum of conquest does not yet make itself heard!”
[7] It is also said that Sokolovic had the "physicians and apothecaries to be secretly
strangled". Another account says
that even some slaves/servants that witnessed Suleiman's collapse and death
were strangled before they were able to leave the tent. I find this hard to believe because having
all the sultan's physicians and apothecaries would raise many suspicions. Who would have strangled all the servants?
Then ask yourself, who would have chronicled that Sokolovic had the physicians
and servants killed?
[8] Sokolovic liked
his life, he liked his power and he would do whatever is necessary, no matter what
the cost at Szigetvar, to get a victory here.
[10] By one account there were twelve Ottoman dignitaries who knew of
Suleiman's death including the Sultan's doctor.
[13] Or maybe he was in Iconium, modern day Konya, a city on the
south-western edge of the Central Anatolian Plateau, in the sultanate of
Rum. A trip of 1,800 km. Or maybe he was
in Kütahya which is between Konya and Manisa.
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